{"id":791,"date":"2014-04-19T17:15:46","date_gmt":"2014-04-19T17:15:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/?p=791"},"modified":"2015-10-10T23:11:48","modified_gmt":"2015-10-10T23:11:48","slug":"creating-a-sufi-soundscape-recitation-dhikr-and-spiritual-audition-sama-according-to-ahmad-kasani-dahbidi-d-1542","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/?p=791","title":{"rendered":"Creating a sufi soundscape"},"content":{"rendered":"


\nCreating a sufi soundscape: recitation (dhikr) and spiritual audition (sam\u0101\u2018) \u00a0according to ahmad k\u0101s\u0101n\u012b dahbid\u012b (d. 1542)<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\n

Alexandre Papas<\/strong><\/p>\n

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris<\/em><\/p>\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

In both Central Asia and China, as in other Muslim societies, discussions and debates on recitation (dhikr) and spiritual audition (sam\u0101\u2018) were and still are widespread. If we look for the origins of these Sufi techniques in Xinjiang, it seems that in the case of the Naqshbandiyya, the debate was rather different from that of modern times (Lipman 1997). Concerning recitation, the dispute did not oppose silent to loud recitation, khuf\u012b and jahr\u012b; and regarding spiritual audition, the discussion was not related to its legitimacy within the Naqshbandiyya. Actually, this question did not arise before the late 18th century. To reconsider the original practice and theory of dhikr and sam\u0101\u2019, I will summarise two unpublished writings (in Persian) of one of the most influential Sufi thinkers for Eastern Turkestan, namely Ahmad K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b Dahbid\u012b, a 16th-century Naqshbandi master who lived in Samarkand (Papas 2008), but whose descendants known as Khoja Makhd\u016bmz\u0101da spread all over the Tarim Basin. I use a manuscript copied in 997-8\/1589-90, so quite early after the author\u2019s death.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"<\/a>

Loud recitation (dhikr-i jahr\u012b), Turkestan, 1860-70s (Turkestanskii Al\u2019bom. Part 2, vol. 1, pl. 65, no. 183)<\/em><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Treatise on dhikr<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ahmad K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b begins by arguing that \u201cthe superiority (afzaliyyat) of our dhikr over other dhikrs is that the expression \u201cthere is no other than god\u201d (l\u0101 il\u0101ha ilall\u0101h) is of two parts\u201d. In the first part, there is the negation of the otherness, in the second part there is the confirmation of God in heart. For the Naqshbandis, excellent above all recitation (adhk\u0101r) is the dhikr of l\u0101 il\u0101ha ilall\u0101h since, following the negation of the other from heart, the practitioners find the confirmation of God\u2019s presence in their heart. In other words, after removing from heart the \u201cl\u0101 il\u0101ha\u201d which marks the otherness (ghayriyyat), they establish in heart the \u201cilall\u0101h\u201d, that is to say, the love of God. Thus, once the negation of otherness and confirmation of the beloved are accomplished, any sign of the life is banished from the Sufi\u2019s heart so that nothing remains but the love of God. Then, paradoxically, the Sufi is no longer conscious but is not without attention (khuz\u016br u \u0101g\u0101h\u012b).<\/p>\n

Now, we read, the Sufi practitioners are of three kinds i.e. the beginner (mubtad\u012b), the intermediate (mutawassit) and the accomplished (muntah\u012b).<\/p>\n

The dhikr of the beginner is as follows: the Sufi must say (guft) l\u0101 il\u0101ha ilall\u0101h within three movements (harak\u0101t) and three pauses (wuq\u016bf), he must practice retention of the breath under the navel, the tongue stuck to the palate, the breath should be considered his last breath, a voluntary suffocation. Several conditions are to be met for the dhikr performance: one is to speak from the heart to the heart, not from the stomach, which does not give results. Speaking \u201cfrom the heart\u201d means speaking with the thought that resides in the true heart. Speaking \u201cto the heart\u201d means speaking to the body part in the form of a pine cone located in the left side. Another condition is that the movements of the body do not appear in front of yourself but are abstract (ma\u2019naw\u012b). There is some ambiguity here, between loud and silent techniques: K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b does not reject explicitly loud recitation but certainly favors silent recitation as a more advanced and more sophisticated practice.<\/p>\n

The dhikr of the intermediate is as follows: It is performed by the metaphoric heart (dil-i maj\u0101z\u012b) which resides in the body part forming a pine cone but without the aforementioned difficulties. At this time, all troubles have disappeared and the heart reaches the wuq\u016bf-i qalb\u012b, this until the Sufi stops talking (az guftan b\u0101z \u012bstad). This suggests that dhikr is becoming silent. For some practitioners, they can be so unconscious that they become permanently unconscious. This is the stage of fan\u0101-yi fan\u0101 where the Sufi\u2019s existence is annihilated and no trace of being remains.<\/p>\n

The dhikr of the accomplished is as follows: it is the stage of fan\u0101-yi fan\u0101 where attention to God is the essence, when there is no longer consciousness and nothing of the humane characteristics remains, but when God replaces the being. It corresponds to the fan\u0101-yi fan\u0101-yi fan\u0101, the perfect annihilation. At this moment, the Sufi is equally present to himself and present to God.<\/p>\n

Clearly, the point here is not so much the choice between sound and silence but the choice of the appropriate technique for a particular Sufi adept within the same community. According to his abilities and along his spiritual progress, the Sufi may use different types of recitation, reflecting variety but also hierarchy in Sufi circles.<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"<\/a>


Silent recitation (dhikr-i khuf\u012b), Turkestan, 1860-70s (Turkestanskii Al\u2019bom. Part 2, vol. 1, pl. 65, no. 184)<\/em><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Treatise on sam\u0101<\/p>\n

Ahmad K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b explains that the reason for writing this text is that the current \u2018ulam\u0101 who are not members of the Naqshbandiyya, who never met this group and never shared a suhbat (conversation) with them, are opposed to the Naqshbandis and their spiritual practices.<\/p>\n

Among all the advantages of sam\u0101\u2019, we read, one is that companions practicing Sufism are sometimes so preoccupied with the multitude of activities that they get tired (kal\u0101l wa mal\u0101l) in body and mind. Recent masters, because of the problems caused by this kind of accidents encouraged listening to sweet voices, harmonious lyrics and exciting poetry since they can inflame mystical desire and remove lassitude. The second advantage is for the disciples who are stuck in the middle of their spiritual progress. Listening to sweet voices, harmonious lyrics and exciting poetry can produce the hidden qualities that put mystical love in motion. In an instant, the disciple mounts several steps in spiritual progress which, without sam\u0101\u2019, could not be crossed in several years.<\/p>\n

The problem, according to K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b, is that these advantages have been misunderstood and progressively deviated from their proper purpose. However, the Naqshbandis are aware that, in a time of darkness, it is not possible to reject a practice such as sam\u0101\u2019 since listening to fine voices is listening to the sounds of Truth (mukh\u0101tab\u0101t-i haqq). Another problem is that man is composed of spirituality (r\u016bh\u0101niyat) and sensuality (nafs\u0101niyat). Everyone who is victorious in one of these two tendencies follows this one. If spirituality is predominant, someone who listens to fine voices will be brought to God. On the contrary, the careless ones (gh\u0101fil\u0101n) are oriented towards negligence, and fine sounds make no impression on them. Lastly, when sensuality is preeminent, if someone listens to fine voices, he is inclined towards fornication (zin\u0101\u2019) and obscenity (fisq). In other words, the practice of sam\u0101\u2019 itself is neither the cause nor the problem; the real stake is the nature of the individuals.<\/p>\n

Each person who follows the Sufi path uses a particular knowledge (bi \u2018ilm\u012b-yi makhs\u016bs): the science of dhikr-i jahr or dhikr-i khufiyya, or tawajjuh (concentration), or mur\u0101qaba (contemplation), or jadhba (ecstasy), or r\u0101bita (paranormal connection between master and disciples), or sam\u0101\u2019 i.e. listening to fine sounds (shin\u012bdan-i alh\u0101n-i t\u012bbat), or eventually suhbat (conversation between master and disciples).<\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n

Like dhikr, spiritual audition appears as a popular technique among the Naqshbandis but, unlike dhikr, it was rejected by a part of the religious elite in 16th century Central Asia. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, as I have shown elsewhere (Papas 2004), the Khoja Makhd\u016bmz\u0101da of Eastern Turkestan promoted sam\u0101\u2019 as well as dance (raqs) despite their controversial status. Ahmad K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b and his descendants maintained distinctions and hierarchies between Sufi sound practices but admitted all of them, provided that this varied production of ritual sounds (recitation, singing, music, screams, lamenting, etc.), which correspond to the various profiles and advancements of disciples, was under the strict control of the master. I would suggest that this flexibility, theorized by one the main Sufi authorities of Central Asia, contributed to the creation of the long-standing plurivocal Sufi soundscape of Xinjiang, including perhaps its contradictions and conflicts throughout the modern period.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

REFERENCES<\/p>\n

K\u0101s\u0101n\u012b Dahbid\u012b, Ahmad. Majm\u016b\u2018a-yi ras\u0101\u2019\u012bl. Ms. FY 649. Istanbul: \u0130stanbul \u00dcniversitesi K\u00fct\u00fcphanesi.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Lipman, Jonathan N. 1997. Familiar Strangers. A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Papas, Alexandre. 2004. Dansez et chantez\u201d : le droit au sam\u0101\u2018 selon \u0100f\u0101q Khw\u0101ja, ma\u012btre naqshband\u012b du Turkestan (XVIIe si\u00e8cle). Journal d\u2019histoire du soufisme. 4. 189\u2011200.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Papas, Alexandre. 2008. No Sufism without Sufi orders: Rethinking Tar\u00eeqa and Adab with Ahmad K\u00e2s\u00e2n\u00ee Dahbid\u00ee (1461 1542)<\/span><\/a><\/span>. Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies. 2\/1. 4 22.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Creating a sufi soundscape: recitation (dhikr) and spiritual audition (sam\u0101\u2018) \u00a0according to ahmad k\u0101s\u0101n\u012b dahbid\u012b (d. 1542) Alexandre Papas Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris Introduction In both Central Asia and China, as in other Muslim societies, discussions and… Read More ›<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[45,95],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/791"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=791"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/791\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1291,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/791\/revisions\/1291"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=791"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=791"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.soundislamchina.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=791"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}